Primary energy production and transformation 
Generation and distribution of electric and thermal power 
Transport sector 
Building sector 
Industry sector Produzione e distribuzione di elettricità e calore
Nuclear Energy
Autors: Giambattista Guidi, Luisa Ferroni, Michela Mascia
The nuclear reactors currently (December 2020) in operation in some 30 countries all over the world total 443 units, with a total capacity of about 393 GW. They use the nuclear fission process to produce electricity and are mainly Generation II (Gen II) type reactors [1], with design concept dating back to before 1990. Since the 1990s, the increasing attention to the nuclear safety led to the development of Generation III (Gen III) reactors, with improved safety and economic operation. Among these, the most innovative projects are defined as Generation III+ (Gen III+) and include e.g. the French EPR reactor and the US AP1000 reactor. These reactors allow for a greater exploitation of nuclear fuel (burn-up), improved passive and intrinsic safety, higher plant availability, as well as design standardization and simplification, with a consequent reduction of costs and construction time. However, the construction of some (Gen III+) new reactors in Europe has experienced significant delay and exceeded the budget initially allocated. Future projects should take advantage of the experience gained and the potential for cost reductions [5]. At present , several Gen III and Gen III+ reactors are already operational and others are under construction, mostly in Asia. As of December 2020, some 52 reactors are under construction worldwide (12 n China), with a total capacity of 55.7 GW [2]. Another 98 reactors are planned in the rest of the world [3].
In the European Union, the average age of the nuclear reactors in operation is very high and many Member States will soon be forced to choose between replacing these reactors or extending their operating life; in the absence of either option, it is estimated that more than 50 of the 129 operating reactors will be closed by 2025 and 90% will be closed by 2030 [5], resulting in the need to replace their generating capacity. Italy, despite being among the first countries to develop nuclear energy in the '60s, has subsequently renounced, as is known, the nuclear option and currently the Italian nuclear reactors in operation since the mid '80s are being decommissioned- trasporto del petrolio
- Energia nucleare
- reattori nucleari per la produzione di energia elettrica
- centrali nucleari
- fissione nucleare
- fusione nucleare
- reattori di II generazione
- reattori di III generazione
- reattori nucleari di generazione III+
- reattore EPR
- reattore AP1000
- burn-up
- linee di trasmissione
- sicurezza passiva
- sicurezza intrinseca
- disponibilità di impianto
- reattori di IV generazione
- decommissioning
- reattori nucleari modulari
- combustibile nucleare
- uranio naturale
- uranio arricchito
- arricchimento del combustibile
- ritrattamento del combustibile esaurito
- rifiuti radioattivi
- sicurezza e proliferazione nucleare
- incidenti nucleari
- gestione dei rifiuti nucleari
- sicurezza di esercizio
- accettazione sociale della tecnologia
- nuclear energy
- nuclear power
- nuclear reactor
- nuclear fission
- nuclear fusion
- thermonucler fusion
- II-gen nuclear reactors
- 2nd generation nuclear reactors
- 3rd gen nuclear reactors
- 4th gen nuclear reactors
- IV generation nuclear reactors
- modular reactors
- nuclear power stations
- EPR reactor
- AP1000 reactor
- nuclear safety
- veicoli elettrici
- passive safety
- inherently safe reactors
- plant availability
- nuclear fuel
- uranium
- enriched uranium
- nuclear fuel enrichment
- nuclear fuel recycling
- nuclear waste management
- nuclear proliferation
- nuclear accident
- social acceptant of nuclear energy